Awka Journal of History, AJOH, is a bi-annual open access and peer reviewed publication of the Awka School of History. AJOH is committed to publishing original and well researched articles and book reviews in all areas of History which include but not limited to Environmental History, Economic History, political history, Social History, Military and Strategic History, Health History, Entertainment History, Culture and Anthropology. The journal is poised to provide a new and important platform for academics and researchers to expand the frontiers of History by contributing meaningfully to historical scholarship.
AWKA JOURNAL OF HISTORY (AJOH) Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023)
EXPLORING HISTORICAL DYNAMICS OF PEACE AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN PRECOLONIAL YORUBA SOCIETY, 1388-1864
Traditional Yoruba society in West Africa has a rich cultural heritage that has been passed down through generations. The Yoruba people are known for their unique customs, beliefs, and practices that emphasize the value of peaceful coexistence and the resolution of conflicts through various means. Over the years, Yoruba society has faced several challenges, including wars, colonization and modernization, that have threatened the preservation of their traditional practices. However, despite these challenges, Yoruba people have managed to maintain their cultural heritage and have continued to practice their traditional methods of conflict resolution and peacekeeping. This paper explores the ways in which Yoruba society has managed to preserve peace and harmony since time immemorial. The paper aims to analyse the peace and conflict management methods employed in the Yoruba pre-colonial era and culture and their effectiveness in maintaining social harmony. The paper will also explore the role of traditional institutions, such as the Obas (kings) and Ifa priests, in resolving disputes and maintaining peace in Yoruba communities. The paper also sheds light on the relevance of these traditional methods of peace and conflict management in contemporary times. The study of traditional conflict resolution Traditional Yoruba society in West Africa has a rich cultural heritage that has been passed down through generations. The Yoruba people are known for their unique customs, beliefs, and practices that emphasize the value of peaceful coexistence and the resolution of conflicts through various means. Over the years, Yoruba society has faced several challenges, including wars, colonization and modernization, that have threatened the preservation of their traditional practices. However, despite these challenges, Yoruba people have managed to maintain their cultural heritage and have continued to practice their traditional methods of conflict resolution and peacekeeping. This paper explores the ways in which Yoruba society has managed to preserve peace and harmony since time immemorial. The paper aims to analyse the peace and conflict management methods employed in the Yoruba pre-colonial era and culture and their effectiveness in maintaining social harmony. The paper will also explore the role of traditional institutions, such as the Obas (kings) and Ifa priests, in resolving disputes and maintaining peace in Yoruba communities. The paper also sheds light on the relevance of these traditional methods of peace and conflict management in contemporary times. The study of traditional conflict resolution methods is particularly relevant in today's world, where there is a growing need for peaceful solutions to conflicts. The Yoruba culture offers a unique perspective on conflict resolution, which can be applied in modern societies to promote peaceful coexistence and social harmony.
Adewale Adepoju, Ph.D & Adelakun Isaac Abiodun
TRADE, ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN BETTE-BENDI, 1960-2000
This paper examines how past undertakings and later engagements, trade and economic activities greatly expanded to support the overall growth of the Bette-Bendi area of the Upper Cross River region since independence, 1960-2000. The paper posits that economic production in post-colonial Bette-Bendi was the basis for the consolidation of trade, entrepreneurship and social change in the area. Factors that were responsible for the consolidation will be examined in terms of their impact on trade, economic growth and social change in the area during the period under review. The work depended on both primary and secondary sources of data. While primary data were collected from informants from the Bette-Bendi area using structured interview guide, secondary sources consisted of extant secondary literature. Data collected were analyzed qualitatively based on the specific objectives of this study. The research adopts the “vent-for-surplus” theory developed by Hla Myint. The theory posits that colonialism aided development in backward economies through expansion of agriculture and trade, construction of infrastructure such as roads, the railway and other means of communication, and introduction of foreign consumer goods and other inducements which enticed the producer to put more effort in production. The work concludes that, in spite of their rudimentary technology, the early years of the Bette-Bendi post-colonial economy was a diversified and vibrant economy which supported trade, economic growth and social change.
TERRORISM IN WEST AFRICA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: A STUDY OF BOKO HARAM IN NORTHEAST NIGERIA 2009-2021
Terrorism has posed serious challenges to regional and global security and stability. The security and development of the West African Region have been grossly affected by terrorist activities. This paper examines the phenomenon of terrorism in West Africa during the 21st century with a particular focus on the activities of Boko Haram in Northeast Nigeria between 2009 and 2021 when the group was most active. Apart from ethnic/religious intolerance and religious extremism, which informed the rise of terrorist groups, issues ranging from weak government institutions and structures, poor policies and weak implementation, corruption, scarce economic resources, political marginalization,` inequality, injustice, poor infrastructural development, neglect and lingering unresolved issues among others had been adduced to be largely responsible for the rise of violent insurgency which degenerated into terrorism. The effect of terrorism has further crippled the weak economy as apart from the destruction of existing structures and disruption of normal activities, resources which are supposed to be used for development are channeled into combating terrorism and insurgency. The study adopts the interdisciplinary approach utilizing both primary and secondary sources for the qualitative analysis. The study examined the nature of crises in the country and the activities of Boko Haram in destabilizes regional stability and development, among others. The study emphasises the need for transparency and accountability of government in every sector, strengthened institutions, inclusivity, independence of the judiciary, effective law enforcement, religious regulation, development of indigenous systems for job creation and good governance generally as a panacea for stability in the region.
IDENTITY ISSUES, AFRICAN STATEHOOD AND SECURITY IMPLICATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA, 1960-2000
This study examines the challenges of identity crises in Africa and its attendant implications on Africa’s security that have also impeded economic growth and development, using Nigeria as a case study. This has become necessary as a result of the desire to find out the most appropriate solutions to it once and for all as it is being used by the incumbency in leadership against its political opponents. The study adopts a qualitative method of analysis, using mainly secondary data sources. The study finds that issues pertaining leadership and identity-crisis has become a source of serious concern in Nigeria and Africa respectively, because it causes unnecessary bloodshed, destruction, derailment and resource wastage. This has become a recurrent unresolved issue in Nigeria due squarely to leadership failure on the part of the Nigerian leaders, with its attendant security implications. The paper argues that for durable and sustainable peace to reign in the whole of Nigeria, there is the need for inclusive political participation by all members of the Nigerian state in their place of residents. The paper concludes that Nigeria’s quest to become true leader of the African continent will only manifest when genuine respect is given to the ethnic groups, irrespective of the boundary-identity imposed by the British colonists.
CHALLENGES OF URBANIZATION IN POST-COLONIAL OGBOMOSO, 1990-2019
Since the end of the Second World War, shift and changing nature of socio-economic conditions have helped to create new processes of urbanization in Nigeria. For many years, the focus of urban scholarship in Nigeria has largely focussed on rural-urban migration with less attention paid to urban studies and its multidisciplinary approaches. Since the issue of urban definition with its challenges is inconclusive, this paper, therefore seeks to examine urbanization process in Ogbomoso and socio-economic transformation that characterised its development. This paper attempts an in-depth analysis of trends and challenges of urban growth in Ogbomoso metropolis. Historical analytical method is employed to address the kernel of this work. The study employs primary and secondary data to elicit information. The primary sources include structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews with purposively selected key informants. Secondary data is sourced through textbooks and journals articles to complement the primary data utilized. Data collected is analysed using descriptive and content analysis. The growth of cities such as Ogbomoso in postcolonial Nigeria is attributed to a combination of factors such as employment, security and adequate social facilities that include education, housing, transportation, communication and health. This paper argues that Ogbomoso faces challenges of spontaneous urbanization which includes population surge and insecurity. Through spatial expansion, Ogbomoso absorbs the adjoining rural areas. The study reveals that urban growth has subsequently increased pressure on existing or unavailable job opportunities, insecurity and infrastructural facilities, thereby leading to migration, poverty, unemployment and increase in crime. The concentration of social facilities in Ogbomoso has equally encouraged the exodus of migrants with diverse cultural affinities and such a trend led to significant demographic changes in Ogbomoso.
NAFDAC AND ITS STRUCTURAL DEFECTS IN NIGERIA, 1993-2002
The need to explain the administrative structures, roles and challenges of NAFDAC in the discharge of their legitimate duties of check-making fake drugs in Nigeria is what informed the writing of this article. NAFDAC was established as a respond to the resolution of the World Health Assembly organized by the World Health Organization in 1988 which insisted that countries should initiate programs for the prevention and detection of fake counterfeit drugs and pharmaceutical products and nip in the bud the dangers it posed to global health. To this end, Nigeria established a body known as the Directorate of Food and Drug Administration and Control (FDAC) under the Federal Ministry of Health which was limited in its activities by so many factors including bureaucratic bottle neck etc. The death of children in 1989 due to formulation error in a drug led to the establishment of NAFDAC through decree No 15 of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1993, as amended through NAFDAC Act No 1 Law of the Federation of Nigeria 2004. The article also highlighted the challenges faced by the body such as corruption, conflict of interests, inadequate legislations, weak and discriminatory regulation, inadequate cooperation among government agencies, false declaration of goods and products, sophistication in clandestine drugs manufacturing, demand exceeding supply and high prices of medicine. All these are some of the challenges faced by NAFDAC in the discharge of her duties. The negative effects of fake drugs and what to be done to strengthen the activities of NAFDAC to make it more effective and efficient is suggested.
YORUBA AND IGBO INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS IN IBADAN, 1945-1970
Human interactions are necessary for the development of human society. Over the years, this fact played a profound role in building Africa as a close knitted society driven by ethos rooted in brotherhood. In Nigeria, therefore, the Igbo and Yoruba have largely demonstrated this reality in their interactions. Apparently, the Yoruba and Igbo share some historical affinities and have related well in the past. However, due to the nature and partner of Nigeria’s post-colonial politics rooted in self-centredness, the Yoruba and Igbo began to experience some strains in their interactions at the post-colonial era created by politicians from both groups. Nevertheless, Ibadan has over the years become a home for the Igbo as well as provided the enabling environment and atmosphere for Igbo-Yoruba relations. In another vein, the Igbo have contributed immensely to the socio-economic development of Ibadan through their peaceful comportment, industry and ingenuity. Be that as it may, the unique Yoruba-Igbo inter-ethnic relations are largely neglected by scholars. This study, therefore, analyzed the relations between Yoruba and Igbo with a view to understanding the mechanism employed in their relations and how they were able to explore and maintain cordial relationship with fewer clashes of interest. Both primary and secondary sources were utilized. Historical-analytical method was adopted for the study. It is observed that Yoruba and Igbo had robust interactions in Ibadan except for some isolated cases of mistrust and betrayal largely associated with the 1966 political crises in Nigeria.
A SUCCESS OR A DEBACLE? THE NATIONAL DRUG LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCY’S FIGHT AGAINST ILLEGAL DRUGS IN NIGERIA, 1989-2021
Nigeria, as at today, is seriously beleaguered by drug problem. Drug abuse in Nigeria has increased to an alarming rate in recent times and there are as many types of drugs as there are the people who abuse them. No part of Nigeria is left out of the problem, just as new and trendy intoxicating substances keep evolving almost on daily basis and finding their way into every nook and cranny of society with little or no check. More worrisome but engaging is the fact that this trend is accompanied by some drug problems which have thrown Nigeria into perpetual anarchy in the form of kidnapping for ransom, cultism, armed robbery, militancy, banditry, domestic violence, prostitution, among others. Obviously, situation as this calls for a re-appraisal of the effort of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) as the only critical agency established by law to eradicate drug abuse in Nigeria. With a focus on the history, reasons, activities, and challenges of the NDLEA, this study seeks to place the agency in proper perspective-to present to the reader the circumstances that inspired the formation as well as how far it has fared in its mandate within the period under review. Tainted with certain levels of success, this study equally while specifying some notable positive moves on the part of the NDLEA, has not failed to recognize the litany of challenges emergent in this type of task, moreso when most of these items have a long history of cultural permissibility. Appraising the NDLEA within the specified scope has successfully exposed Nigeria, as at today, is seriously beleaguered by drug problem. Drug abuse in Nigeria has increased to an alarming rate in recent times and there are as many types of drugs as there are the people who abuse them. No part of Nigeria is left out of the problem, just as new and trendy intoxicating substances keep evolving almost on daily basis and finding their way into every nook and cranny of society with little or no check. More worrisome but engaging is the fact that this trend is accompanied by some drug problems which have thrown Nigeria into perpetual anarchy in the form of kidnapping for ransom, cultism, armed robbery, militancy, banditry, domestic violence, prostitution, among others. Obviously, situation as this calls for a re-appraisal of the effort of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) as the only critical agency established by law to eradicate drug abuse in Nigeria. With a focus on the history, reasons, activities, and challenges of the NDLEA, this study seeks to place the agency in proper perspective-to present to the reader the circumstances that inspired the formation as well as how far it has fared in its mandate within the period under review. Tainted with certain levels of success, this study equally while specifying some notable positive moves on the part of the NDLEA, has not failed to recognize the litany of challenges emergent in this type of task, moreso when most of these items have a long history of cultural permissibility. Appraising the NDLEA within the specified scope has successfully exposed.
MUHAMMED BUHARI: MR. INTEGRITY? A FIGURE IN NIGERIA’S HISTORY, 1967-2023
Nigeria in the quest for true nationhood, nation building and nationalism have seen and engaged personalities who in one way or the other have contributed in national transformation or retrogression. This quest remains crucial and current in national discourse. The study in view is aimed at unearthing fundamental principles, personality traits, actions, policies and roles of Mohammed Buhari in Nigeria’s quest for a true egalitarian state. Relying on secondary and electronic sources of information the study among other things, spin an interesting historical perspective in the person, Mohammed Buhari. Interrogating Buhari through the ambit of objective history, and not Historical Justice is the import of this study, with regards to the Muhammed Buhari identity. Nigeria’s chequered history is inundated with variegated key players that operated from diverse fronts and dimensions, propelled by selfish desires and interests, unethically transformative and developmental. Quite aware of the cumulative attitudes that drive the evolution of humans’ vis a vis enculturation and acculturation, and the part played by environmental influence, this piece is poised to analyse and evaluate Muhammed Buhari not only as a notable rational figure, but emphatically on the altar of integrity. This study succinctly recommends that individuals, especially those operating in leadership positions, should once in a while undergo proper mental assessment to evaluate their mental acuity within a given time.
TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS AS AGENTS OF COMMUNITY INTEGRATION FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND TRANSFORMATION: A STUDY OF OZUITEM, ABIA STATE. 1999-2015
The data that is now available indicates that pre-colonial Ozuitem civilization had a systematic and structured system of government. The primary cause of the decades-long social disputes that have their roots in socio-economic and political system is the non-participatory functions of traditional institutions in modern Ozuitem as opposed to their roles in managing both people and resources in pre-colonial times. Traditional institutions are no longer relevant as a result of this transformation, which also poses risks to the community's peace, security, and stability. This essay seeks to analyze aspects of traditional institutions and community integration in Ozuitem. The Paper used both secondary data and primary sources as part of its research. The document makes several proposals, some of which include giving those institutions a constitutional function and encouraging friendly connections between the government and those institutions to lessen local strife. The government's recognition of traditional institutions at all levels will improve their performance, particularly when it comes to handling issues relating to Community integration and transformation in Ozuitem. Traditional institutions in Ozuitem should be granted constitutional roles so they could have a say in the management of their respective locales, not just as advisors, but also as developers to the Community.
IMO STATE, RICH, BUT POOR; AN ESSAY ON DE-INDUSTRIALIZATION IN THE FACE OF ABUNDANT RESOURCES, 1976 – 2011
Beginning from 1976 when Imo state was created out of the defunct East Central State of Nigeria as was the case with many states of the federation, the new state was inevitably faced with problems of underdevelopment. Consequent upon this, successive administrations, both military, civilian, and private business operators boastfully and vainly claimed that efforts by way of economic and political policies had been initiated to bail the nascent state from the clutches of avoidable poverty. These initiatives such as free primary education, encouragement of state wide sanitation exercise and its enforcement by sanitary officers popularly known then as Nwole Ala, scholarship programmes and stable political environment which guaranteed reduced insecurity and confidence in political leadership. According to the successive military leaders in the state, these were parts of the grand strategies to steer the state away from imminent underdevelopment and place her on the part to prosperity. Unfortunately, these lofty initiatives could not substantially translate into, or trigger the much expected or desired leap in economic fortune of the state through sustained industrialization, which would have brought about development and improvement in quality of life for Imo citizens, rather what obtained was persistent reduction in quality of life and underdevelopment occasioned by massive de-industrialization in the face of abundant human and material resources. In view of these, the present paper opines that the weak economic condition to which Imo State was subjected within the time under review was caused by myriads of factors which were both political and economic to which the state was plunged by the successive military administrations in the state. To achieve the studies’ set objectives, thematic, historical and analytical methodologies were adopted as emphases were laid on both primary and secondary sources of data.
Emerole, Walter Ginikanwa (Ph.D) & Anthony E. Nkwocha, Ph.D
MONETISATION OF POLITICAL POWER AND THE CRISIS OF THE NIGERIA STATE, 1999-2019
Monetisation of political power otherwise known as money politics has gained concern in the international community as it threatens democratic stability and sustainability across the globe. The menace seems to be the root of political crisis in Africa, particularly in Nigeria's fourth republic, beginning from the return to civil rule in 1999. Primarily, the study examined the implications of money politics in the electoral process and democratic consolidation of the fourth republic vis-a-vis how it has contributed to the crisis of the Nigeria State. This study by implication presented money politics as the independent variable which causes changes and effects on leadership performance. Hence, financial inducement always influenced virtually all aspects of institutional mechanisms and processes for leadership selection and governing activities. The failed system theory, on which this study anchored, corroborated the position of this paper which stresses that due to incessant leadership crisis arising from monetisation of political power, the Nigeria State has lost the capacity for effective governance. This, according to the paper, has had grave implication in service delivery which plunges the system into recurring episodes of leadership crisis. This study identified three dimensions of monetisation of political power in the fourth republic to include; financial corruption/poor accountability syndrome of public office holders; godfatherism and high cost of election funding. This study obtained materials solely through secondary sources. The paper also recommended an all-encompassing institutional and cultural re-evaluation as very potent remedies to incidences of leadership crisis in Nigeria arising from the monetisation of political power.
INDIGENOUS PARTICIPATION IN RESOURCE EXPLORATION IN NIGERIA’S NIGER-DELTA, 1960-2005
The issue of ownership and control of resources in the Niger Delta, Nigeria, is a serious question that has remained unanswered. The question has continued to generate discussions in the polity. Much has been written on the pages of newspapers regarding the ownership of oil resource in the region. This article seeks to interrogate the claims of the Niger Delta people on conspiracy between the Nigerian government and the multinational oil companies operating in the Niger-Delta in view of exploration of oil resources in the area without the active involvement of the people. It adopts the historical method, relying on primary information obtained from archival sources and secondary sources. The paper tries to bring to the fore the conflict of interests between the host communities and the activities of the multinational oil companies operating in the areas. It highlights a tale of woes and lamentations of the people whose natural resources and means of livelihood are taken away without their full involvement. The paper establishes a link between militancy in Niger Delta and neglect of host communities which pushed the youth, the most threatened group by way of neglect to react against this injustice. The youth has reacted negatively by hostage-taking of their perceived enemies and demanding ransom from the multinational oil companies operating in the Niger Delta. The paper concludes by looking at the new approach of understanding among stakeholders based on dialogue with all the stake holders in the exploration of the resources in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta.
Emmanuel Toby Ph.D & Charles Osarenomase Osarumwense Ph.D
THE MERGER THAT NEVER WORKED: HISTORICIZING ELECTRICITY FAILURE IN NIGERIA, 1972 – 2005
Undoubtedly, electricity has become a major energy source for industrial, commercial and even domestic activities in the modern world. However, in most of the sub-Saharan African countries, including Nigeria, supply-demand gap has remained embarrassingly far too wide. This has left consumers with flickering, epileptic power supply with concomitant underperformance of industries and businesses. This paper traces Nigeria’s electricity ordeal to a decreed merger of the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) which was practically in charge of electricity supply in the country, with the Nigeria Dam Authority (NDA), which was in charge of electricity generation in 1972. The merger produced a monopoly called National Electricity Power Authority (NEPA). A historical analysis of NEPA’s performance up to 2005 when the Power Sector Reform Act was passed, vis-a-vis its given task, forms the kernel of this paper. It argues that NEPA, whose ubiquitous poor performance earned it a new satirical description, - ‘Never Expect Power Always,’ was a merger that never really worked. In sync with this thesis, the paper concludes that monopolistic power utility is not just inconsistent with modern best practice, but also a wrong approach to power management. Apart from showing what never worked, the paper also makes case for what will work - further separation of functions in the transmission sub-sector. A historical method, which employs the use of primary and secondary sources of information, is adopted for the study.
HUMANITARIAN MISSIONARIES OR AGENTS OF IMPERIALISM? A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN NORTH-EAST NIGERIA, 1999-2020
The paper critically examines the role of Development Partners and Non-Governmental Organizations in the management of internally displaced persons in North-East geo-political zone of Nigeria, from 1999 to 2020, during the peak period of monumental humanitarian crises that claimed thousands of lives, destroyed properties and displaced millions of people from their communities, creating humanitarian crises that overwhelmed the state and federal government. It traces the origin and factors that triggered the crisis. The involvement of Development Partners and Non-Governmental Organizations in the management of the crisis. The work critically analysed the impact of development partners and non-governmental organization, issues that aroused and challenges that confronted the two agencies in the course of discharging their duties during the period of our focus. It concludes that inspite of allegations and criticisms against their motives and operations in the North-East Development Partners and Non-Governmental Organization overnment played pivotal role in the management of internally displaced persons in the North-East Nigeria during the surveyed period.
A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA’S POLITICAL STRUCTURE: LESSONS, HOPE, AND REALITIES, 1960-2020
This paper examines the evolving political structure of Nigeria since the country achieved independence in 1960. This analysis focuses on the lessons and realities of Nigeria's journey since independence, and the future hope for the nation. By discussing significant events in Nigerian politics, including military coups, government corruption, and regional tensions, the paper provides an overview of the major events that have shaped the nation's political landscape. It argues that Nigeria's political history is one of both challenges and opportunities and that in recent years, the nation has seen increasing levels of stability and accountability in its political system. This paper begins by examining Nigeria's initial structure and stability at the time of independence. It then goes on to discuss the effects of the various military coups that have occurred in the nation's history, including their impact on the nation's central government and its political parties and regional tensions. It then turns to the social and economic realities of the Nigerian polity, articulating the challenges the nation has faced since independence, and how these challenges have been addressed by successive governments. The paper then examines the current state of Nigerian politics, focusing on the nation's progress in terms of institutional stability, political accountability, and economic progress. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the history and evolution of Nigeria's political system since independence. By examining the nation's progress in terms of stability, social and economic development, and the resultant effects on governance, the paper highlights both the challenges associated with Nigerian politics and the measure of hope for the nation in its future. It argues that, while Nigeria has faced and continues to face many difficulties, there is reason to be optimistic about the prospects of the nation's political future.
VIOLENCE AND YOUTH RESTIVENESS IN NIGERIA, 1999 -2020: INTERROGATING THE ROLE OF ELITES
Violence is not peculiar to Nigeria rather occurs across the globe. More often than not when it occurs, it is driven by youths and undermines the stability, and tranquility needed for national development. There are many factors that could drive youth into restiveness, as its occurrences invoke negative implications both on the youth and the country at large. Many scholars have written extensively on what the potentials, drives and initiatives of youth could mean for nations when streamlined into tangible assets. Similarly, some have extoled on the negative corresponding effects of such huge skills, strengths and other vital qualities when neglected. However, only few have directly examined the corresponding role of elites in the visibly poor conditionings, bad governance, low education, poor investment environment, insecurity and other essential qualities of living that seemingly feed such youth violence for negative ventures despite the opportunities inherent in democratic restoration. This content is descriptive, historical and uses qualitatively analysis of secondary sources of data. The piece sets to examine the role of elites in the downturn actions resulting into youth violence across the nation. It argues that violence in form of protests which got to its peak with the outbreak of Endsars in 2020 staged by youths across the country are premeditated on their perceived deprivations, conditions and marginalization. Finally, it urges Violence is not peculiar to Nigeria rather occurs across the globe. More often than not when it occurs, it is driven by youths and undermines the stability, and tranquility needed for national development. There are many factors that could drive youth into restiveness, as its occurrences invoke negative implications both on the youth and the country at large. Many scholars have written extensively on what the potentials, drives and initiatives of youth could mean for nations when streamlined into tangible assets. Similarly, some have extoled on the negative corresponding effects of such huge skills, strengths and other vital qualities when neglected. However, only few have directly examined the corresponding role of elites in the visibly poor conditionings, bad governance, low education, poor investment environment, insecurity and other essential qualities of living that seemingly feed such youth violence for negative ventures despite the opportunities inherent in democratic restoration. This content is descriptive, historical and uses qualitatively analysis of secondary sources of data. The piece sets to examine the role of elites in the downturn actions resulting into youth violence across the nation. It argues that violence in form of protests which got to its peak with the outbreak of Endsars in 2020 staged by youths across the country are premeditated on their perceived deprivations, conditions and marginalization. Finally, it urges
"NO SAFE ZONE:"AN EXPLORATION INTO THE MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS OF SECURITY CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA, 1999-2022
Nigeria is currently battling generalized insecurity. With hardly any of its six geo-political zones spared from one form of insecurity or the other, Africa’s most populous country and erstwhile bulwark of stability in West Africa is now practically under the gun on all fronts. There is growing insecurity in Nigeria, despite the best efforts of the gallant members of the country’s security forces and increased budgetary provisions. The cumulative effect of the generalized insecurity is that the fear among Nigerians is palpable as nowhere seems immune. This is especially so in rural areas which bear a heavier brunt, given the somewhat regular rate those areas are besieged. The debilitating security challenges are already also taking a toll on economic activities, particularly with regard to commerce and agriculture. The adverse effect is also felt in the education sector in many parts of the country. This is in addition to the humanitarian crisis occasioned by mass displacements in states burdened by security challenges. The unending sit-at-home order enforced by members of the Eastern Security Network (ESN), the armed wing of the Indigenous Peoples of Biafra (IPOB), is negatively affecting trade in an area noted for its vibrant commercial activities. Further crackdown on such lawful business activities have drastically reduced individual and government revenue, thus fueling poverty and its attendant consequences, especially in the worst affected states of Anambra and Imo. The continued debasement of state legitimacy will embolden criminals and ultimately lead to the creation of a state within a state. In the North-West and North-Central, the sacking of hundreds of farming communities continues to exacerbate the looming spectre of hunger and starvation. The rapid spread of ISWAP cells, if untamed, could give the Islamic state an opportunity to turn Nigeria into the new Syria. The North Central, South West, and South South are equally burdened by growing insecurity in different forms. To arrive at such an understanding, the paper examines the major forms of insecurity in the six geo-political zones of the country, sketching their histories and dimensions, and mapping how they imperil life and property, magnify fault-lines, and hinder economic growth and national development. This paper explored the drivers and triggers of insecurity in the country. Secondary data is employed using descriptive and analytical lenses which identified eleven factors which provide the environment for insecurity.
GLOBALIZATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGERIA, 1960-2020
Globalization and the Environment: Some Implications for Nigeria analysed the effects of globalization on the environment, leading to the destruction of lives and property, depletion or complete extinction of some organic species in the environment and, invariably, jeopardize the Health of the ecosystems. The paper utilized both primary and secondary sources derived from oral interviews, published texts and the internet. Investigation revealed that in the quest for higher returns on investments and savings, globalization has proved to be a potent force for catastrophic disasters and diseases that have ravaged Nigeria in no mean measure. Natural and man-made disasters that have caused serious devastation to the environment can only be ameliorated or prevented through proper environmental practices, implementable laws and educational awareness by the people, government, civil society organizations and other institutions consciously. Relying on qualitative content analysis and multidisciplinary approaches to historical reconstruction, the paper recommended the adoption of a multifaceted and concerted effort in order to tame the effects of globalization on the Nigerian environment.
THE BIBLICAL TRIBE OF BENJAMIN AND INTRICATE DANCE OF POWER, LOYALTY AND RESILIENCE: LESSONS FOR NIGERIA
This research paper undertakes a rigorous examination of the historical narrative and cultural dynamics of the biblical tribe of Benjamin, meticulously dissecting its intricate interplay of power, loyalty and resilience. With a clear purpose to illuminate parallels with contemporary Nigerian society, the study rigorously investigates how the tribe's leadership structures, mechanisms of social cohesion and dexterity in overcoming adversity can be invaluable in informing governance, fostering social unity and resolving conflicts in Nigeria. Employing a methodological framework encompassing thorough analysis of biblical texts, historical records and comparative studies, this paper rigorously uncovers insights that transcend time and space, offering indispensable guidance for policy formulation and societal advancement in Nigeria. Its findings not only enrich scholarly discourse but also serve as a beacon for policymakers, highlighting the imperative of anchoring solutions in a deep understanding of historical legacies and cultural nuances.
THE UNETHICAL OPERATION OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY THAT MARRED THE UNITY OF NIGERIA
Nigeria is not an exception to seizing of power by the military. This study focused on military intervention in Nigeria political life. It aimed at examining the causes and consequences of military intervention in Nigeria political system. Some of its objectives included examining the origin and historical foundation of the Nigeria military; tracing records of military coups in the country, interrogating reasons advanced for such interventions examining the constitutional priorities of the Nigerian military, and what the influence of religion and ethnicity posed on the stability and co-operate existence of Nigeria. To achieve the above, the study applied diachronic approach which entails taking events bit by bit. The findings revealed, among other things, that though there seems to be no single variable serving as a key to a definitive explanation of the phenomenon of incessant military appropriation of power in Nigeria, however, the study asserted that faulty foundation, religion, ethnicity and none commitment by the military personnel to the core values and norms establishing the military remain major causal factors. The study calls for a more patriotic military to avert the co-operate dismemberment of Nigeria.
Anene Chidi Pensive & Njoku Chinonyerem Uche
THE ROLE OF THE MONARCHY IN FOSTERING DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN AGBOR AND BENIN
This paper reviews the social psychology of the inter-group relations that exist between the people of Agbor and Benin; it focuses on how the interactions between these people have affected their way of life and beliefs. Today, it is difficult to distinguish among these different people’s cultures, languages, and the names they bear. Inter-group relations between various indigenous clans in pre-colonial Nigeria have received less attention from historians and others, thus, helping to perpetuate the erroneous notion that Africans before the coming of the Europeans were isolated from one other and unable to form complex relationships and governments. These racist views have been upheld by the European community in an attempt to justify their actions on the continent and in Nigeria in particular. The Truth is, even before the coming of the Europeans, Africans were in contact with one another, they interacted through diverse means like trade, wars, and inter-marriages among others. The paper will therefore attempt to establish that the people of Agbor and Benin have had a long period of cooperation among themselves, thanks to the roles that the kings played. It will also explain some of the conflicts that threatened to tear these groups apart. It would show the various ways that these groups showed solidarity with one another in the area of attending festivals, burial ceremonies, marriages, and others. This study will achieve its objectives using the qualitative research method to analyze the available data while relying on the use of primary and secondary sources to provide the necessary information. The paper concludes that the kings played major roles in maintaining the peace and harmony that both kingdoms continue to enjoy.
REVISITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE LAW PROFESSION
Following the removal of history from the academic disciplines in Nigeria’s educational curriculum in 2009, many unsavory definitions were prom oted to justify its diminished significance vis à vis other academic disciplines like the proverbial dog to justify its killing. Such definitions seem to portray the subject as mere stories of no consequence which need not bother critical minds. But with the reintroduction of the discipline of history into the Nigerian school academic curri culum in all segments of learning in 2020, October 16, it becomes very necessary to undrape the changing relevance of the discipline long forsaken, misinterpreted and misunderstood and as well show the changing significance of history to the society and to other disciplines such as Law. The paper discovered that the disdain the discipline has suffered in the time past, apart from ignorance, has been largely due to lack of adequate awareness of the rich content and significance of the discipline coupled with the definitions bequeathed to it by the colonial masters including deliberate attempt to conceal events that otherwise would have been of immense benefit to the development of the nation. The period covered by this work spans from precolonial period to th e period of reinstatement of history as an academic discipline in 2020. This paper discovered through a re examination of extant literature the invaluable nature of history to not only individuals and institutions and leaders but to the discipline of Law. It would be an invaluable resource to students of Law, history, state administrators and curriculum planners of Nigeria .
OGWUMABIRI MARKET AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF UMUAHIA, 1900-1975
This study examined the contributions of Ogwumabiri Markets to the development of Umuahia, the capital city of Abia state in South-eastern Nigeria. It explores the multifaceted impact of these markets on the city’s socio-economic growth, Urbanisation, and cultural evolution. The purpose of this study, therefore is to historicize Umuahia’s strategic location as a railway hub, spurred real estate development and contributed to its Urban sprawl. The study also attempted to demonstrate that culturally, markets have become melting pots where different ethnicities and cultures interact, promoting social cohesion and cultural exchange. The study utilised thematic analysis and secondary sources, including books, journals and newspapers by various scholars. The findings indicate that marketing activities and market institutions are integral to urban development. Markets also present challenges such as congestion, environmental population and strain on urban infrastructure. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive urban planning and sustainable development strategies to ensure that the benefits of markets are maximized while mitigating their adverse effects.
CHRISTIANITY IN IGBOLAND: THE PLACE AND IMPACT OF SOME SELECTED MISSIONARIES (1800-1920)
Christianity in Igboland did not emerge out of vacuum, there were certain personalities such as Simon Jonas, J. C. Taylor, Joseph Shanahan, Mary Slessor among others who sacrificed their comfort, time, resources and so forth to ensure that the light of Christianity illuminates Igbo territory. There are volumes of literature written concerning Christian missionary enterprise in Igbo of Eastern Nigeria however, much have not been done in pin pointing some distinguished personalities and their respective contributive efforts towards the planting and growth of Christian religion in the Eastern geographical territory of Nigeria. Thus, this research is an attempt to bring to limelight the salient labours of some Christian missionaries whose contributions led to the growth and development of Christianity in Igboland. The finding of this research is that some Christian missionaries were zealous and resilient to the fulfilment of the Great Commission. This resulted to their enormous contribution in the growth and development of Christian religion in Igbo territory. They made positive impacts in Christianizing and civilizing the Igbo nation as today, a greater population of Igbo people are Christians. The research recommends that present indigenous Christian missionaries should endeavour to impact meaningfully to the sustenance of Christian religion in Igboland and Nigeria at large.
Onyeka John Egwuonwu & Cyprian Obiora Alokwu
HISTORY AND THE ART OF NATION BUILDING IN AFRICA: THE NIGERIA EXPERIENCE SINCE 1960
This work focuses on history and the art of nation building in Africa, the Nigeria experience since independence in 1960. One of the biggest challenges African countries have faced since independence is that of nation building. After independence in 1960, the desire to build a just, peaceful, orderly and progressive society has been uppermost in the minds of Nigerian leaders. Unfortunately, over six decades after independence, the spate of crises and acrimony among the peoples have been provoking scholarly debates about the creation of the Nigerian entity. Nation building is viewed as a complex and open-ended process, but that does not mean that people should shy away from embracing the challenge. The paper finds out that, the discipline of history by its very nature and content emerges as the societal repertoire which undeniably preserves the trajectory of how any nation has developed and how nation building has taken place. The paper, thus argues that the story of the development of the nation is well captured through its history. Relying on rich secondary sources, this study further argues that the challenges of living together, of seeking solutions to the multifarious problems and challenges of nation building are not dealt with by denying the historical facts. This paper is historical; hence, it adopts a qualitative method of analysis. Useful piece of information were obtained from important relevant documents, reports and array of secondary sources.
AN APPRAISAL OF THE US COLD WAR POLICY OF CONTAINMENT, 1947-1953
The Containment Policy of the United States of America in the 1940s was one of the most crucial and strategic post-war policies ever employed or implemented by a Western superpower in the face of adversity, warfare and strife in the history of Western civilization. World War II was coming to a close and the Soviet Union was advancing its influence and political will in Europe and other parts of the globe. In order to quell such influence marching and advancing from the Soviet Communists, the United States government conceived a divisive and inconceivable policy at the behest of the country’s political and economic survival in order to maintain US hegemony and military monopoly in Europe, Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. This paper examines the role of the US Cold War Containment Policy in international politics during the 1940s and 1950s and the ways in which the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan influenced the policy in America’s dealings with the Soviet Union and China, her antagonizing rivals in the Cold War. This paper also analyzes the nature of the Truman Doctrine in the world of international affairs and the pivotal importance or significance the doctrine played in importing Western democracy and hegemony to Eastern Europe, Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East.
FROM COLONIALISM TO IDENTITY POLITICS: NIGERIA’S HISTORICAL TRAJECTORY
This study examines the impact of colonial policies on Nigeria's ethnic and regional dynamics by analysing historical and contemporary sources. It discusses how arbitrary boundary demarcations, exploitative resource extraction, and divisive administrative techniques have significantly influenced the country. Colonialism has created a situation in Nigeria where different ethnic groups are divided and unfairly competing with one another, leading to increased tensions and the rise of identity-based politics. Qualitatively driven, this study made extensive use of secondary materials, observing amongst other issues, that the unequal allocation of resources and opportunities across various areas and ethnic groups has prolonged sentiments of being excluded and treated unfairly, leading political figures to organise based on ethnic affiliations to gain electoral benefits. The research is of the view that, although Nigeria's colonial history is a significant aspect in comprehending its identity politics, other factors such as strong external interests and manipulations, post-independence governance and economic inequality also play vital roles in the intricacies of the nation's identity dynamics. The study continues by highlighting the significance of redressing past injustices, advocating for inclusive governance, revoking the neo-colonial yoke, undertaking a complimentary dialogue of culture towards cultivating national unity as crucial measures to reduce the influence of identity politics and establish a more unified national identity in Nigeria.
Chinemerem Ojiego-Okoro & Innocent-Franklyn Ezeonwuka Ph.D
AWKA JOURNAL OF HISTORY (AJOH), Vol. 2 No. 1 (2024)