RE-EMERGENCE OF WOMEN’S ARTISANAL MINING IN OKPELLA EDO STATE NIGERIA, 1960–1980

Abstract

Several studies have examined events that occurred on the eve of Nigeria’s independence and those that have taken place since its independence in 1960. These studies cover a wide range of issues, including the strategies adopted during the decolonization process, post-independence crises, the civil war, post-war reconstruction, and the Indigenization Decree. Historians, political scientists, sociologists, and anthropologists have also interrogated the impact of key developments such as the oil boom of the 1970s, development planning in the 1970s, the political changes that ushered in the Second Republic in 1979, and the economic challenges of the 1980s. However, none of these studies has examined the re-emergence of women’s artisanal mining in Okpella, Edo State, Nigeria, from 1960—when Nigeria attained independence—to 1980, when the chieftaincy declaration law recognized the authority of traditional rulers over Okpella and its environs. This gap limits a comprehensive understanding of Nigeria’s post-independence economy in general and Okpella’s local economy in particular. This study investigates the re-emergence of Okpella women in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) between 1960 and 1980, following their marginalization in formal mining at independence. Utilizing oral interviews, archival records, and field observations, it traces how the collapse of large mining firms—triggered by oil discovery in 1956, the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), and indigenization policies—created opportunities for women to dominate the local extraction of limestone, granite, and gravel. The analysis highlights persistent challenges, including restricted access to finance, licenses, land, and technology; low bargaining power; health risks arising from dust inhalation, pit collapses, and environmental pollution; and cultural and legal discrimination that confined women to informal and vulnerable operations. Environmental consequences—such as deforestation, water contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs), and soil degradation—underscore the unsustainable nature of unregulated ASM. The study concludes that the resilience of Okpella women in navigating postindependence economic challenges exemplifies female agency in Nigeria’s informal sector and offers critical lessons for gender-inclusive mining policies, environmental regulation, and sustainable livelihood strategies